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539 lines
22 KiB
Plaintext
A short git tutorial
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====================
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May 2005
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Introduction
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------------
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This is trying to be a short tutorial on setting up and using a git
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archive, mainly because being hands-on and using explicit examples is
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often the best way of explaining what is going on.
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In normal life, most people wouldn't use the "core" git programs
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directly, but rather script around them to make them more palatable.
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Understanding the core git stuff may help some people get those scripts
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done, though, and it may also be instructive in helping people
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understand what it is that the higher-level helper scripts are actually
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doing.
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The core git is often called "plumbing", with the prettier user
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interfaces on top of it called "porcelain". You may not want to use the
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plumbing directly very often, but it can be good to know what the
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plumbing does for when the porcelain isn't flushing...
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Creating a git archive
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----------------------
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Creating a new git archive couldn't be easier: all git archives start
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out empty, and the only thing you need to do is find yourself a
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subdirectory that you want to use as a working tree - either an empty
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one for a totally new project, or an existing working tree that you want
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to import into git.
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For our first example, we're going to start a totally new archive from
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scratch, with no pre-existing files, and we'll call it "git-tutorial".
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To start up, create a subdirectory for it, change into that
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subdirectory, and initialize the git infrastructure with "git-init-db":
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mkdir git-tutorial
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cd git-tutorial
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git-init-db
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to which git will reply
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defaulting to local storage area
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which is just git's way of saying that you haven't been doing anything
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strange, and that it will have created a local .git directory setup for
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your new project. You will now have a ".git" directory, and you can
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inspect that with "ls". For your new empty project, ls should show you
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three entries:
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- a symlink called HEAD, pointing to "refs/heads/master"
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Don't worry about the fact that the file that the HEAD link points to
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doesn't even exist yet - you haven't created the commit that will
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start your HEAD development branch yet.
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- a subdirectory called "objects", which will contain all the git SHA1
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objects of your project. You should never have any real reason to
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look at the objects directly, but you might want to know that these
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objects are what contains all the real _data_ in your repository.
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- a subdirectory called "refs", which contains references to objects.
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In particular, the "refs" subdirectory will contain two other
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subdirectories, named "heads" and "tags" respectively. They do
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exactly what their names imply: they contain references to any number
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of different "heads" of development (aka "branches"), and to any
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"tags" that you have created to name specific versions of your
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repository.
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One note: the special "master" head is the default branch, which is
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why the .git/HEAD file was created as a symlink to it even if it
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doesn't yet exist. Basically, the HEAD link is supposed to always
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point to the branch you are working on right now, and you always
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start out expecting to work on the "master" branch.
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However, this is only a convention, and you can name your branches
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anything you want, and don't have to ever even _have_ a "master"
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branch. A number of the git tools will assume that .git/HEAD is
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valid, though.
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[ Implementation note: an "object" is identified by its 160-bit SHA1
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hash, aka "name", and a reference to an object is always the 40-byte
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hex representation of that SHA1 name. The files in the "refs"
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subdirectory are expected to contain these hex references (usually
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with a final '\n' at the end), and you should thus expect to see a
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number of 41-byte files containing these references in this refs
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subdirectories when you actually start populating your tree ]
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You have now created your first git archive. Of course, since it's
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empty, that's not very useful, so let's start populating it with data.
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Populating a git archive
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------------------------
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We'll keep this simple and stupid, so we'll start off with populating a
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few trivial files just to get a feel for it.
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Start off with just creating any random files that you want to maintain
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in your git archive. We'll start off with a few bad examples, just to
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get a feel for how this works:
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echo "Hello World" > a
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echo "Silly example" > b
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you have now created two files in your working directory, but to
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actually check in your hard work, you will have to go through two steps:
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- fill in the "cache" aka "index" file with the information about your
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working directory state
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- commit that index file as an object.
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The first step is trivial: when you want to tell git about any changes
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to your working directory, you use the "git-update-cache" program. That
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program normally just takes a list of filenames you want to update, but
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to avoid trivial mistakes, it refuses to add new entries to the cache
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(or remove existing ones) unless you explicitly tell it that you're
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adding a new entry with the "--add" flag (or removing an entry with the
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"--remove") flag.
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So to populate the index with the two files you just created, you can do
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git-update-cache --add a b
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and you have now told git to track those two files.
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In fact, as you did that, if you now look into your object directory,
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you'll notice that git will have added two new objects to the object
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store. If you did exactly the steps above, you should now be able to do
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ls .git/objects/??/*
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and see two files:
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.git/objects/55/7db03de997c86a4a028e1ebd3a1ceb225be238
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.git/objects/f2/4c74a2e500f5ee1332c86b94199f52b1d1d962
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which correspond with the object with SHA1 names of 557db... and f24c7..
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respectively.
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If you want to, you can use "git-cat-file" to look at those objects, but
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you'll have to use the object name, not the filename of the object:
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git-cat-file -t 557db03de997c86a4a028e1ebd3a1ceb225be238
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where the "-t" tells git-cat-file to tell you what the "type" of the
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object is. Git will tell you that you have a "blob" object (ie just a
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regular file), and you can see the contents with
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git-cat-file "blob" 557db03de997c86a4a028e1ebd3a1ceb225be238
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which will print out "Hello World". The object 557db... is nothing
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more than the contents of your file "a".
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[ Digression: don't confuse that object with the file "a" itself. The
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object is literally just those specific _contents_ of the file, and
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however much you later change the contents in file "a", the object we
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just looked at will never change. Objects are immutable. ]
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Anyway, as we mentioned previously, you normally never actually take a
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look at the objects themselves, and typing long 40-character hex SHA1
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names is not something you'd normally want to do. The above digression
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was just to show that "git-update-cache" did something magical, and
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actually saved away the contents of your files into the git content
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store.
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Updating the cache did something else too: it created a ".git/index"
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file. This is the index that describes your current working tree, and
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something you should be very aware of. Again, you normally never worry
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about the index file itself, but you should be aware of the fact that
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you have not actually really "checked in" your files into git so far,
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you've only _told_ git about them.
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However, since git knows about them, you can now start using some of the
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most basic git commands to manipulate the files or look at their status.
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In particular, let's not even check in the two files into git yet, we'll
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start off by adding another line to "a" first:
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echo "It's a new day for git" >> a
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and you can now, since you told git about the previous state of "a", ask
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git what has changed in the tree compared to your old index, using the
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"git-diff-files" command:
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git-diff-files
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oops. That wasn't very readable. It just spit out its own internal
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version of a "diff", but that internal version really just tells you
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that it has noticed that "a" has been modified, and that the old object
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contents it had have been replaced with something else.
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To make it readable, we can tell git-diff-files to output the
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differences as a patch, using the "-p" flag:
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git-diff-files -p
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which will spit out
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diff --git a/a b/a
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--- a/a
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+++ b/a
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@@ -1 +1,2 @@
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Hello World
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+It's a new day for git
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ie the diff of the change we caused by adding another line to "a".
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In other words, git-diff-files always shows us the difference between
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what is recorded in the index, and what is currently in the working
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tree. That's very useful.
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Committing git state
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--------------------
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Now, we want to go to the next stage in git, which is to take the files
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that git knows about in the index, and commit them as a real tree. We do
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that in two phases: creating a "tree" object, and committing that "tree"
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object as a "commit" object together with an explanation of what the
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tree was all about, along with information of how we came to that state.
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Creating a tree object is trivial, and is done with "git-write-tree".
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There are no options or other input: git-write-tree will take the
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current index state, and write an object that describes that whole
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index. In other words, we're now tying together all the different
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filenames with their contents (and their permissions), and we're
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creating the equivalent of a git "directory" object:
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git-write-tree
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and this will just output the name of the resulting tree, in this case
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(if you have does exactly as I've described) it should be
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3ede4ed7e895432c0a247f09d71a76db53bd0fa4
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which is another incomprehensible object name. Again, if you want to,
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you can use "git-cat-file -t 3ede4.." to see that this time the object
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is not a "blob" object, but a "tree" object (you can also use
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git-cat-file to actually output the raw object contents, but you'll see
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mainly a binary mess, so that's less interesting).
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However - normally you'd never use "git-write-tree" on its own, because
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normally you always commit a tree into a commit object using the
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"git-commit-tree" command. In fact, it's easier to not actually use
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git-write-tree on its own at all, but to just pass its result in as an
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argument to "git-commit-tree".
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"git-commit-tree" normally takes several arguments - it wants to know
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what the _parent_ of a commit was, but since this is the first commit
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ever in this new archive, and it has no parents, we only need to pass in
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the tree ID. However, git-commit-tree also wants to get a commit message
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on its standard input, and it will write out the resulting ID for the
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commit to its standard output.
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And this is where we start using the .git/HEAD file. The HEAD file is
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supposed to contain the reference to the top-of-tree, and since that's
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exactly what git-commit-tree spits out, we can do this all with a simple
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shell pipeline:
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echo "Initial commit" | git-commit-tree $(git-write-tree) > .git/HEAD
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which will say:
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Committing initial tree 3ede4ed7e895432c0a247f09d71a76db53bd0fa4
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just to warn you about the fact that it created a totally new commit
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that is not related to anything else. Normally you do this only _once_
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for a project ever, and all later commits will be parented on top of an
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earlier commit, and you'll never see this "Committing initial tree"
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message ever again.
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Making a change
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---------------
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Remember how we did the "git-update-cache" on file "a" and then we
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changed "a" afterward, and could compare the new state of "a" with the
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state we saved in the index file?
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Further, remember how I said that "git-write-tree" writes the contents
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of the _index_ file to the tree, and thus what we just committed was in
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fact the _original_ contents of the file "a", not the new ones. We did
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that on purpose, to show the difference between the index state, and the
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state in the working directory, and how they don't have to match, even
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when we commit things.
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As before, if we do "git-diff-files -p" in our git-tutorial project,
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we'll still see the same difference we saw last time: the index file
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hasn't changed by the act of committing anything. However, now that we
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have committed something, we can also learn to use a new command:
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"git-diff-cache".
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Unlike "git-diff-files", which showed the difference between the index
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file and the working directory, "git-diff-cache" shows the differences
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between a committed _tree_ and either the the index file or the working
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directory. In other words, git-diff-cache wants a tree to be diffed
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against, and before we did the commit, we couldn't do that, because we
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didn't have anything to diff against.
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But now we can do
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git-diff-cache -p HEAD
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(where "-p" has the same meaning as it did in git-diff-files), and it
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will show us the same difference, but for a totally different reason.
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Now we're comparing the working directory not against the index file,
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but against the tree we just wrote. It just so happens that those two
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are obviously the same, so we get the same result.
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In other words, "git-diff-cache" normally compares a tree against the
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working directory, but when given the "--cached" flag, it is told to
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instead compare against just the index cache contents, and ignore the
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current working directory state entirely. Since we just wrote the index
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file to HEAD, doing "git-diff-cache --cached -p HEAD" should thus return
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an empty set of differences, and that's exactly what it does.
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[ Digression: "git-diff-cache" really always uses the index for its
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comparisons, and saying that it compares a tree against the working
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directory is thus not strictly accurate. In particular, the list of
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files to compare (the "meta-data") _always_ comes from the index file,
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regardless of whether the --cached flag is used or not. The --cached
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flag really only determines whether the file _contents_ to be compared
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come from the working directory or not.
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This is not hard to understand, as soon as you realize that git simply
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never knows (or cares) about files that it is not told about
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explicitly. Git will never go _looking_ for files to compare, it
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expects you to tell it what the files are, and that's what the index
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is there for. ]
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However, our next step is to commit the _change_ we did, and again, to
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understand what's going on, keep in mind the difference between "working
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directory contents", "index file" and "committed tree". We have changes
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in the working directory that we want to commit, and we always have to
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work through the index file, so the first thing we need to do is to
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update the index cache:
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git-update-cache a
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(note how we didn't need the "--add" flag this time, since git knew
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about the file already).
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Note what happens to the different git-diff-xxx versions here. After
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we've updated "a" in the index, "git-diff-files -p" now shows no
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differences, but "git-diff-cache -p HEAD" still _does_ show that the
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current state is different from the state we committed. In fact, now
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"git-diff-cache" shows the same difference whether we use the "--cached"
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flag or not, since now the index is coherent with the working directory.
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Now, since we've updated "a" in the index, we can commit the new
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version. We could do it by writing the tree by hand, and committing the
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tree (this time we'd have to use the "-p HEAD" flag to tell commit that
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the HEAD was the _parent_ of the new commit, and that this wasn't an
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initial commit any more), but the fact is, git has a simple helper
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script for doing all of the non-initial commits that does all of this
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for you, and starts up an editor to let you write your commit message
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yourself, so let's just use that:
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git commit
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Write whatever message you want, and all the lines that start with '#'
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will be pruned out, and the rest will be used as the commit message for
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the change. If you decide you don't want to commit anything after all at
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this point (you can continue to edit things and update the cache), you
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can just leave an empty message. Otherwise git-commit-script will commit
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the change for you.
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You've now made your first real git commit. And if you're interested in
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looking at what git-commit-script really does, feel free to investigate:
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it's a few very simple shell scripts to generate the helpful (?) commit
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message headers, and a few one-liners that actually do the commit itself.
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Checking it out
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---------------
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While creating changes is useful, it's even more useful if you can tell
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later what changed. The most useful command for this is another of the
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"diff" family, namely "git-diff-tree".
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git-diff-tree can be given two arbitrary trees, and it will tell you the
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differences between them. Perhaps even more commonly, though, you can
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give it just a single commit object, and it will figure out the parent
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of that commit itself, and show the difference directly. Thus, to get
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the same diff that we've already seen several times, we can now do
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git-diff-tree -p HEAD
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(again, "-p" means to show the difference as a human-readable patch),
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and it will show what the last commit (in HEAD) actually changed.
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More interestingly, you can also give git-diff-tree the "-v" flag, which
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tells it to also show the commit message and author and date of the
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commit, and you can tell it to show a whole series of diffs.
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Alternatively, you can tell it to be "silent", and not show the diffs at
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all, but just show the actual commit message.
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In fact, together with the "git-rev-list" program (which generates a
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list of revisions), git-diff-tree ends up being a veritable fount of
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changes. A trivial (but very useful) script called "git-whatchanged" is
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included with git which does exactly this, and shows a log of recent
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activity.
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To see the whole history of our pitiful little git-tutorial project, you
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can do
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git log
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which shows just the log messages, or if we want to see the log together
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with the associated patches use the more complex (and much more
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powerful)
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git-whatchanged -p --root
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and you will see exactly what has changed in the repository over its
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short history.
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[ Side note: the "--root" flag is a flag to git-diff-tree to tell it to
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show the initial aka "root" commit too. Normally you'd probably not
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want to see the initial import diff, but since the tutorial project
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was started from scratch and is so small, we use it to make the result
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a bit more interesting ]
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With that, you should now be having some inkling of what git does, and
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can explore on your own.
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Copying archives
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-----------------
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Git archives are normally totally self-sufficient, and it's worth noting
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that unlike CVS, for example, there is no separate notion of
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"repository" and "working tree". A git repository normally _is_ the
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working tree, with the local git information hidden in the ".git"
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subdirectory. There is nothing else. What you see is what you got.
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[ Side note: you can tell git to split the git internal information from
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the directory that it tracks, but we'll ignore that for now: it's not
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how normal projects work, and it's really only meant for special uses.
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So the mental model of "the git information is always tied directly to
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the working directory that it describes" may not be technically 100%
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accurate, but it's a good model for all normal use ]
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This has two implications:
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- if you grow bored with the tutorial archive you created (or you've
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made a mistake and want to start all over), you can just do simple
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rm -rf git-tutorial
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and it will be gone. There's no external repository, and there's no
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history outside of the project you created.
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- if you want to move or duplicate a git archive, you can do so. There
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is no "git clone" command: if you want to create a copy of your
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archive (with all the full history that went along with it), you can
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do so with a regular "cp -a git-tutorial new-git-tutorial".
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Note that when you've moved or copied a git archive, your git index
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file (which caches various information, notably some of the "stat"
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information for the files involved) will likely need to be refreshed.
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So after you do a "cp -a" to create a new copy, you'll want to do
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git-update-cache --refresh
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to make sure that the index file is up-to-date in the new one.
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Note that the second point is true even across machines. You can
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duplicate a remote git archive with _any_ regular copy mechanism, be it
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"scp", "rsync" or "wget".
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When copying a remote repository, you'll want to at a minimum update the
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index cache when you do this, and especially with other peoples
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repositories you often want to make sure that the index cache is in some
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known state (you don't know _what_ they've done and not yet checked in),
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so usually you'll precede the "git-update-cache" with a
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git-read-tree --reset HEAD
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git-update-cache --refresh
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which will force a total index re-build from the tree pointed to by HEAD
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|
(it resets the index contents to HEAD, and then the git-update-cache
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|
makes sure to match up all index entries with the checked-out files).
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The above can also be written as simply
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git reset
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and in fact a lot of the common git command combinations can be scripted
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|
with the "git xyz" interfaces, and you can learn things by just looking
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|
at what the git-*-script scripts do ("git reset" is the above two lines
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|
implemented in "git-reset-script", but some things like "git status" and
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|
"git commit" are slightly more complex scripts around the basic git
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|
commands).
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NOTE! Many (most?) public remote repositories will not contain any of
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|
the checked out files or even an index file, and will _only_ contain the
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|
actual core git files. Such a repository usually doesn't even have the
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|
".git" subdirectory, but has all the git files directly in the
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|
repository.
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To create your own local live copy of such a "raw" git repository, you'd
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|
first create your own subdirectory for the project, and then copy the
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|
raw repository contents into the ".git" directory. For example, to
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|
create your own copy of the git repository, you'd do the following
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|
mkdir my-git
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cd my-git
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rsync -rL rsync://rsync.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/git.git/ .git
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followed by
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git-read-tree HEAD
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|
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to populate the index. However, now you have populated the index, and
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|
you have all the git internal files, but you will notice that you don't
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|
actually have any of the _working_directory_ files to work on. To get
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those, you'd check them out with
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|
git-checkout-cache -u -a
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|
where the "-u" flag means that you want the checkout to keep the index
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|
up-to-date (so that you don't have to refresh it afterward), and the
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"-a" file means "check out all files" (if you have a stale copy or an
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|
older version of a checked out tree you may also need to add the "-f"
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file first, to tell git-checkout-cache to _force_ overwriting of any old
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|
files).
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You have now successfully copied somebody else's (mine) remote
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repository, and checked it out.
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[ to be continued.. cvs2git, tagging versions, branches, merging.. ]
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